NOTE: Please go straight to the bottom and watch the YouTube video at the end if you do not intend on browsing the whole Blog. The video is entitled "Randy Pausch Last Lecture: Achieving Your Childhood Dreams". It is the last lecture he present before passing away, July 25, 2008.
Learning Theory
Bahviourism: concerned with behaviour, learning is characterised by an observable change in behaviour. Learners can be conditioned to learn, and, by use of rewards or punishments, can learn to behave accordingly to achieve maximised learning outcomes.
Cognitivism: concerned with mental processes, learning is achieved by information passing through three stages, i) sensory memory, lasting only a few seconds unless significant or relevant, and if so passing into ii) working memory, which, when stored, may last up to 20 seconds, which if important for long term use, skills, knowledge, etc, passes into iii) long term memory, which is stored for permanent use, and can be moved back and forth from working to long term memory.
Constructivism: concerned with progression, learning is a gradually construction of reality or the learner's interpretation of it. They're understanding of knowledge is dependent on their prior knowledge, social experiences, perception and observation.
Connectivism: concerned with technology and digital literacy, learning is the process of being connected to as many sources of information as possible - to tap into when needed. The idea is not to 'learn all that there is to know', rather to 'have immediate access to anything you may need to know, should the situation arise'. Logically, if information of a given topic is constantly accessed, it will be inadvertently acquired and integrated by the learner to some degree.
Learning Styles
There are various approaches or ways of learning (and teaching) which appeal to certain learners. Most people prefer an identifiable method of interacting with, taking in, and processing stimuli or information. Based on this concept, the idea of individualized "learning styles" originated in the 1970s, and acquired "enormous popularity".
The Multiple Intelligences
The theory of multiple intelligences was proposed by Howard Gardner in 1983. According to Gardner
Therefore, the following are recognised as 'intelligences', meeting the criteria:
- Spatial
- Linguistic
- Logical-mathematical
- Bodily-kinesthetic
- Musical
- Interpersonal
- Intrapersonal
- Naturalistic
Spatial
This area deals with spatial judgment and the ability to visualize with the mind's eye. Careers which suit those with this type of intelligence include artists, designers and architects. A spatial person is also good with puzzles. Spatial ability is one of the three-factor's beneath g in the hierarchical model of intelligence.
Linguistic
This area has to do with words, spoken or written. People with high verbal-linguistic intelligence display a facility with words and languages. They are typically good at reading, writing, telling stories and memorizing words along with dates. They tend to learn best by reading, taking notes, listening to lectures, and by discussing and debating about what they have learned. Those with verbal-linguistic intelligence learn foreign languages very easily as they have high verbal memory and recall, and an ability to understand and manipulate syntax and structure. Verbal ability is one of the most g-loaded abilities.
"Logical-mathematical”
This area has to do with logic, abstractions, reasoning and numbers. While it is often assumed that those with this intelligence naturally excel in mathematics, chess, computer programming and other logical or numerical activities, a more accurate definition places less emphasis on traditional mathematical ability and more on reasoning capabilities, recognizing abstract patterns, scientific thinking and investigation and the ability to perform complex calculations. Logical reasoning is closely linked to fluid intelligence and to g.
Bodily-kinesthetic
The core elements of the bodily-kinesthetic intelligence are control of one's bodily motions and the capacity to handle objects skillfully (206). Gardner elaborates to say that this intelligence also includes a sense of timing, a clear sense of the goal of a physical action, along with the ability to train responses so they become like reflexes. In theory, people who have bodily-kinesthetic intelligence should learn better by involving muscular movement (e.g. getting up and moving around into the learning experience), and are generally good at physical activities such as sports or dance. They may enjoy acting or performing, and in general they are good at building and making things. They often learn best by doing something physically, rather than by reading or hearing about it. Those with strong bodily-kinesthetic intelligence seem to use what might be termed muscle memory – they remember things through their body such as verbal memory.
Careers that suit those with this intelligence include: athletes, pilots, dancers, musicians, actors, surgeons, doctors, builders, police officers, and soldiers. Although these careers can be duplicated through virtual simulation, they will not produce the actual physical learning that is needed in this intelligence.
Musical
This area has to do with sensitivity to sounds, rhythms, tones, and music. People with a high musical intelligence normally have good pitch and may even have absolute pitch, and are able to sing, play musical instruments, and compose music. Since there is a strong auditory component to this intelligence, those who are strongest in it may learn best via lecture. Language skills are typically highly developed in those whose base intelligence is musical. In addition, they will sometimes use songs or rhythms to learn. They have sensitivity to rhythm, pitch, meter, tone, melody or timbre.
Careers that suit those with this intelligence include instrumentalists, singers, conductors, disc-jockeys, orators, writers and composers.
Interpersonal
This area has to do with interaction with others. In theory, people who have a high interpersonal intelligence tend to be extroverts, characterized by their sensitivity to others' moods, feelings, temperaments and motivations, and their ability to cooperate in order to work as part of a group. They communicate effectively and empathize easily with others, and may be either leaders or followers. They typically learn best by working with others and often enjoy discussion and debate.
Careers that suit those with this intelligence include sales, politicians, managers, teachers and social workers.
Intrapersonal
This area has to do with introspective and self-reflective capacities. People with intrapersonal intelligence are intuitive and typically introverted. They are skillful at deciphering their own feelings and motivations. This refers to having a deep understanding of the self; what your strengths/ weaknesses are, what makes you unique, being able to predict your own reactions/emotions. Careers which suit those with this intelligence include philosophers, psychologists, theologians, lawyers, and writers. People with intrapersonal intelligence also prefer to work alone.
Naturalistic
This area has to do with nurturing and relating information to one’s natural surroundings. Examples include classifying natural forms such as animal and plant species and rocks and mountain types; and the applied knowledge of nature in farming, mining, etc. Careers which suit those with this intelligence include naturalists, farmers and gardeners.
Existential
Some proponents of multiple intelligence theory proposed spiritual or religious intelligence as a possible additional type. Gardner
The theory has been met with mixed responses. Traditional intelligence tests and psychometricshave generally found high correlations between different tasks and aspects of intelligence, rather than the low correlations which Gardner
David Kolb's model
The David Kolb's styles model is based on the Experiential Learning Theory. The ELT model outlines two related approaches toward grasping experience: Concrete Experience and Abstract Conceptualization, as well as two related approaches toward transforming experience: Reflective Observation and Active Experimentation. According to Kolb’s model, the ideal learning process engages ALL FOUR of these modes in response to situational demands. In order for learning to be effective, all four of these approaches must be incorporated. The resulting learning styles are combinations of the individual’s preferred approaches.
The hypothesis of an existential intelligence has been further explored by educational researchers. Ability to contemplate phenomena or questions beyond sensory data, such as the infinite and infinitesimal. Careers or callings which suit those with this intelligence include shamans, priests, mathematicians, physicists, scientists, cosmologists and philosophers.
These learning styles are as follows:
Converger: Convergers are characterized by abstract conceptualization and active experimentation. They are good at making practical applications of ideas and using deductive reasoning to solve problems.
Diverger: Divergers tend toward concrete experience and reflective observation. They are imaginative and are good at coming up with ideas and seeing things from different perspectives.
Assimilator: Assimilators are characterized by abstract conceptualization and reflective observation. They are capable of creating theoretical models by means of inductive reasoning.
Accommodator: Accommodators use concrete experience and active experimentation. They are good at actively engaging with the world and actually doing things instead of merely reading about and studying them.
Honey and Mumford’s model
In the mid 1970’s Peter Honey and Alan Mumford adapted David Kolb’s model for use with a population of middle/senior managers in business. Two adaptations were made to Kolb’s experiential model. Firstly, the stages in the cycle were renamed to accord with managerial experiences of decision making/problem solving.
The Honey & Mumford stages are:
- Having an experience
- Reviewing the experience
- Concluding from the experience
- Planning the next steps
Secondly, the styles were directly aligned to the stages in the cycle and named Activist, Reflector, Theorist and Pragmatist. These are assumed to be acquired preferences that are adaptable, either at will or through changed circumstances, rather than being fixed personality characteristics.
Anthony Gregorc's model
This model is based on the existence of perceptions—our evaluation of the world by means of an approach that makes sense to us. These perceptions in turn are the foundation of our specific learning strengths, or learning styles. In this model, there are two perceptual qualities 1) concrete and 2) abstract; and two ordering abilities 1) random and 2) sequential. Concrete perceptions involve registering information through the five senses, while abstract perceptions involve the understanding of ideas, qualities, and concepts which cannot be seen.
In regard to the two ordering abilities, sequential involves the organization of information in a linear, logical way and random involves the organization of information in chunks and in no specific order. Both of the perceptual qualities and both of the ordering abilities are present in each individual, but some qualities and ordering abilities are more dominant within certain individuals. There are four combinations of perceptual qualities and ordering abilities based on dominance: 1) Concrete Sequential; 2) Abstract Random; 3) Abstract Sequential; 4) Concrete Random. Individuals with different combinations learn in different ways—they have different strengths, different things make sense to them, different things are difficult for them, and they ask different questions throughout the learning process.
The responsibility of a Learning Manager is great. There are some studies which state that, after a child's parents, their teacher is often the most influential person in their life. 6 hours of contact a day = 42 hours a week = 2184 hours a year. Learning Managers likely have a much stronger impact than most would imagine. As suggested by the title, a 'Learning Manager' is responsible for managing the students’ acquisition of declarative and procedural knowledge. Unlike simply pouring information into their brain, the job requires a wide range of specific skill set; Some of which include the ability to cater to each individual learner, considering their unique strengths, weaknesses, background and experiences.
Each learner is different, and it is no longer acceptable for teachers to stand at the front of the class and dictatorially command learners to ‘learn’ what they ‘teach’. The psychological and pedagogical knowledge that informs teaching practice is always increasing. A good learning manager understands learner Attitudes and Perceptions, Habits of Mind, the multiple intelligences and corresponding strategies and methodology to cater to these. With the attention away from the teacher and on to the learner (as it should be), there is more and more being done to engage learners in learning experiences, ensure maximum learning outcomes, and prepare our students for a future that (we, the teacher, may never see) in the real world. It is where they will end up, after all.
Each learner is different, and it is no longer acceptable for teachers to stand at the front of the class and dictatorially command learners to ‘learn’ what they ‘teach’. The psychological and pedagogical knowledge that informs teaching practice is always increasing. A good learning manager understands learner Attitudes and Perceptions, Habits of Mind, the multiple intelligences and corresponding strategies and methodology to cater to these. With the attention away from the teacher and on to the learner (as it should be), there is more and more being done to engage learners in learning experiences, ensure maximum learning outcomes, and prepare our students for a future that (we, the teacher, may never see) in the real world. It is where they will end up, after all.
References:
Marzano, R. J. & Pickering, D. J. (1997). Dimensions of Learning Teacher's Manual (2nd Ed.) Association for Supervision & Curriculum Development, Aurora , Colorado , USA
Connectivism: A learning theory for today's learner (n.d.) retrieved from http://www.connectivism.ca/about.html November, 2011.
Constructivism, Behaviourism, and Cognitivism (n.d.) retrieved from http://www.learning-theories.com/ November, 2011.
Snowman, J., Dobozy, E., Scevak, J., Bryer, F., Bartlett Milton , QLD, Australia
Smith, R. & Lynch, D. (2006). The Rise of the Learning Manager: Changing Teacher Education. Pearson Education Australia
McInerney D. M. & McInerney, V. (2006). educational PSYCHOLOGY Constructing Learning. Pearson Education Australia
Hey, great work Ashwin! Fantastic post Yeh!
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